The MacLeod Report (2009) claims that engagement strategies are Essay - 1

The MacLeod Report (2009) claims that engagement strategies are desirable for organisations and employees. With reference to aca - Essay Example 5). Engagement strategies aim at the establishment of mutual respect for what employees can be and what they can do in the organization given the right context that is beneficial for all stakeholders including the organizations, the consumers of services, and the employees themselves. Although engagement strategies are desirable for all organizations, yet they are not desirable for all employees, though for a considerable population of employees, engagement strategies are desirable. Although engagement strategies are generally desirable for the organizations, yet the same cannot be generalized for all employees. These days, many employees keep looking for employment opportunities elsewhere that would offer them better salary and job privileges rather than wanting to stay in the same organization for a very long time particularly when they are not content with their salary and/or job benefits. In the present age, there is scarcity of jobs in many industries in a vast majority of count ries around the world. In such circumstances, employees tend to avail any opportunity that they get irrespective of whether or not they are being offered sufficient salary and meanwhile, keep looking for better employment opportunities. Hence, to say that engagement strategies are desirable for all employees is not logical. According to mspb.gov (2012, p. 2), there are three components of employee engagement for the federal government, namely employees’ discretionary effort to give goal-directed performance, commitment to the organization, and employees’ satisfaction with the organization. The Corporate Leadership Council (2004) defines emotional engagement as â€Å"the extent to which employees derive pride, enjoyment, inspiration, or meaning from something or someone in the organisation. While rational commitment is defined as the extent to which employees feel that someone or something within their organizations provides financial, developmental, or professional re wards that are in their best interests† (Corporate Leadership Council, 2004). This can be stated without doubt that employees’ satisfaction has been and continues to be one of the biggest challenges in front of the management in any organization. Accordingly, the desirability of engagement strategies for the employees is limited. According to Macleod and Clarke (2009, p. 66), there are four main factors that serve as barriers to effective engagement in an organizational context; firstly, leaders either do not know what employee engagement is, what its usefulness for the organization is or they are not aware of its importance. Secondly, leaders may be interested in engagement strategies but may lack the knowledge required to address the issue. Thirdly, leaders and managers may not consent upon the idea of employee engagement. While the leaders might emphasize upon engagement strategies, managers might be ill-equipped to implement them. Consequently, the organizational cu lture cannot deliver effective engagement. Finally, leaders that do emphasize upon engagement strategies vary in their perception of and commitment to it. Many leaders tend to underestimate the potential of employee engag

Is the U.S. Seeking to Contain Russia Research Paper - 2

Is the U.S. Seeking to Contain Russia - Research Paper Example Main Russian authorities gave a joint statement and said that both the countries are now looking to start a collaborative venture against the terrorist nuclear states in order to ensure the safety of their nations. President Obama also showed commitment to work for the U.S. Senate ratification of the Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty. Both countries are also working for usage of nuclear energy in the positive ways and prolific nuclear usage treaty has been signed and there are many other projects which have been started which were ceased by the former presence of America due to the August 2008 Russia-Georgia conflict (Nuclear Energy Today, 82). Many Defense analysts are of the view that US is seeking to contain Russia and the ballistic missiles in South Korea which are covering the whole DPRK and can hit up to 800 kilometers is a clear sign for that. There has been no use of these missiles in that region other than targeting Russia and China and the long-term communist avenge is taking new turns (Globalresearch, 2013). Military experts are also getting hints from the pro-NATO policies of Russia that the US has ceased the policy to contain Russia because it is no more the war of systems now as the liberal democracy has made its impact and Russians seem to accept this point and are looking forward to the peaceful coexistence. The new threat which is said as political Islam has been regarded by them as the main threat to both US and Russia. (English Pravda, 2013) In a combined meeting and conference with Afghan President in August 2008, Russian President Medvedev said that Russia is looking to start new terms and relationships with Afghanistan because both the countries have been a victim of terrorism in the past and now is the time for the peaceful way ahead.

Native Language in Foreign Language Learning

Native Language in Foreign Language Learning 1.1 Introduction The debate over whether English language classrooms should include or exclude students native language has been a controversial issue for a long time (Brown, 2000). Although the use of mother tongue was banned by the supporters of the Direct Method at the end of the nineteenth century, the positive role of the mother tongue has recurrently been acknowledged as a rich resource which, if used judiciously, can assist second language learning and teaching (Cook, 2001). Therefore, this research study tries to open up a new horizon for English instructors to find a thoughtful way to use learners mother tongue in second language teaching. The technique in which L1 was used in this study was translation from L1 to L2, a technique which was rarely used by EFL teachers. Atkinson (1987) was one of the first and chief advocates of mother tongue use in the communicative classroom. He points out the methodological gap in the literature concerning the use of the mother tongue and argues a case in favour of its restricted and principled use, mainly in accuracy-oriented tasks. In his article, Atkinson (1987) clearly stated that translation to the target language which emphasizes a recently taught language item is a means to reinforce structural, conceptual and sociolinguistic differences between the native and target languages. In his view, even though this activity is not communicative, it aims at improving accuracy of the newly learned structures. Similarly, this research aimed at investigating the effect of translation from L1 to L2 on the accurate use of the structures. The arguments in supports of using the learners mother tongue in L2 instruction clearly reveal that not only doesnt the use of first language have a negative impact on L2 learning, but it can be factor to help students improve the way they learn a second language. Although the English Only paradigm continues to be dominant in communicative language teaching , research into teacher practice reveals that the L1 is used as a learning resource in many ESL classes (Auerbach, 1993). Auerbach added that when the native language was used, practitioners, researchers, and learners consistently report positive results. Furthermore, he identifies the following uses of mother tongue in the classroom: classroom management, language analysis and presenting rules that govern grammar, discussing cross-cultural issues, giving instructions or prompts, explaining errors, and checking comprehension. Although the provision of maximum L2 exposure to the learners seems essential, L1 can be used alongside L2 as a complement. In this regard, Turnbull (2001) stated that maximizing the target language use does not and should not mean that it is harmful for the teacher to use the L1. â€Å"a principle that promotes maximal teacher use of the target language acknowledges that the L1 and target language can exist simultaneously (p. 153). Similarly, Stern (1992) stated that the use of L1 and target language should be seen as complementary, depending on the characteristics and stages of the language learning process (p. 285). On the other hand, overuse of L1 will naturally reduce the amount of exposure to L2. Therefore, attempt should be made to keep a balance between L1 and L2 use. In this regard, Turnbull (2001) acknowledges that although it is efficient to make a quick switch to the L1 to ensure, for instance, whether students understand a difficult grammar concept or an unknown word, it is crucial for teachers to use the target language as much as possible in contexts in which students spend only short periods of time in class, and when they have little contact with the target language outside the classroom. 1.2 Background to the problem The Integrated Secondary School Curriculum or Kurikulum Bersepadu Sekolah Menengah (KBSM) was planned in accordance with the National Education Philosophy. The main goal of KBSM was based on the integrated self-development with orientation towards society or nation (Mak Soon Sang, 2003). Four language skills namely listening, speaking, reading and writing are incorporated in the English syllabus proficiency in order to meet their needs to use English in everyday life, for knowledge acquisition, and for future workplace needs (Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia, 2000). My personal experience as a learner has shown me that moderate and judicious use of the mother tongue can aid and facilitate the learning and teaching of the target language, a view shared by many colleagues of mine. However the value of using the mother tongue is a neglected topic in the TESL methodology literature. This omission, together with the widely advocated principle that the native language should not be used in the second language classroom, makes most teachers, experienced or not, feels uneasy about using L1 or permitting its use in the classroom, even when there is a need to do so. How do students and teachers look at this issue? Schweers (1999) conducted a study with EFL students and their teachers in a Spanish context to investigate their attitudes toward using L1 and in the L2 classroom. His result indicates that the majority of students and teachers agreed that Spanish should be used in the EFL classroom (Schweers 1999). Inspired by his research and driven by my own interest, the researcher decided to carry out a similar study on the use of the native language (Malay) in the Malaysian context. However, differences exist between Schweers study and mine. 1.3. Statement of the problem Many rural school students have difficulty in understanding English, and they have often found it difficult to read English books on their own (Ratnawati and Ismail, 2003). Students lack of proficiency in English deprives them of the opportunities open to those who are able to use the language well. Recently, the teaching and learning of English has been discussed widely in Malaysia. This is because the low level of English proficiency among students hinders them from acquiring knowledge globally. Students L1 are being use in the ESL classroom especially in the rural area to help them understand English better and find out if it is an effective teaching and learning tool. Because of the students difficulty in understanding the language, teachers need to assist them thoroughly in the learning process. With the using of the L1, this will gain their interest to stay focus in the class and not being de-motivated in learning the target language. The prohibition of the native language would maximize the effectiveness of learning the target language will be a question that we need to find out. 1.4. Purposes of the study The purpose of the study is to determine whether the L1 (Malay language) are use frequently in the rural ESL classroom. The important of this study is to find out whether L1 works as an effective teaching and learning instrument. 1.5. Research questions Research questions for this study are; How frequent the Malay language was used in the Malaysian English classroom and for what purposes? Can prohibition of L1 (Malay language) maximize the interest of using English in the classroom? What are the perception of the students and the teachers towards using Malay in the English classroom? 1.6. Theoretical For this study, the researcher referred to the theory of SLA that interrelated set of hypothesis or claims about how people become proficient in a second language. In a summary of research findings on SLA, Lightbown (1985: 176-180) made the following claims: Adults and adolescents can â€Å"acquire† a second language. The learner creates a systematic inter-language that is often characterized by the same language as the first language, as well as others that appear to be based on the learners own native language. There are predictable sequences in acquisition so that certain structures have to be acquired before others can be integrated. Practice does not make perfect. Knowing language rule does not mean one will be able to use it in communicative interaction. Isolated explicit error correction is usually effective in changing language behavior. For most adult learners, acquisition stop-â€Å"fossilizes†-before the learner has achieved native-like mastery of the target language. One cannot achieve native-like or non native-like command of a second language in one hour a day. The learners task is enormous because language is enormously complex. A learners ability to understand language in a meaningful context exceeds his or her ability to comprehend de-contextualized language and to produce language of comparable complexity and accuracy. The hypothesis will be the first tool for the measurement of how the students in the rural ESL classroom comprehend with target language. Learning is a long life process so the students need a proper guide to lead them in gaining the language proficiency. There are some modifications that need to be made in using these hypotheses so it will be suit to the learners need in the rural area. There are some mistakes that made by the learners that due to interference from their first language and the learners errors should be corrected as soon as they are made in order to prevent the formation of bad habits. The acquisition-learning hypothesis Stephen Krashen (1977) claimed that adult second language learners have two means for internalizing the target language. The first is â€Å"acquisition†, a subconscious and intuitive process of constructing the system of a language. The second means is a conscious â€Å"learning† process in which learners attend to form, figure out rules, and are generally aware of their own process. According to Krashen, â€Å"fluency in second language performance is due to what we have acquired, not what we have learned† (1981a:99). Adults should, therefore, do as much acquiring as possible in order to achieve communicative fluency; otherwise, they will get bogged of language and to watching their own progress. For Krashen (1982), our conscious learning processes and our subconscious process mutually exclusive: learning cannot become acquisition. This claim of no interface between acquisition and learning is used to strengthen the argument for recommending large doses of acqui sition activity in the classroom, with only a very minor role assigned to learning. The input hypothesis Krashens claims that an important â€Å"condition for language acquisition to occur is that the acquirer understand (via hearing or reading input language that contains structure a bit beyond his or her current level of competence†¦..if an acquirer is at stage or level i , the input he or she understands should contain i +1† (Krashen1981:100). In other words, the language that learners are exposed to should be just far enough beyond their current competence that they can understand most of it but still challenged to make progress. The corollary to this is that input should neither be so far beyond their reach that they are overwhelmed (this might be, say, i + 2) nor so close to their current stage that they are not challenged at all (i + 0). Important parts of the Input Hypothesis are recommendation that speaking not be though directly or very early in the language classroom. Speech will be emerging once the acquirer has built up enough comprehensible input ( i + 1). Success in a foreign language can be attributed to input alone. Such a theory ascribes little credit to learners and their own active engagement in the process. Moreover, it is important to distinguish between input and intake. Intake is what you take with you over a period of time and can later remember. Krashen (1983) did suggest that input gets converted to knowledge through a learners current internalized rule system and the new input. The application of these theories will help the study in measuring how effective the use of L1 in the ESL classroom based on the prior knowledge of the participants and in what way the theories will help the researches defines the result of the studies. Motivation Theory Various definitions of motivation have been proposed over decades of research and three different perspectives emerge: From a behaviourist perspective, motivation was seen in matter of fact terms. It is quite simply the anticipation or reward. Driven to acquire positive reinforcement, and driven by previous reinforcement, and driven by previous experiences of reward for behaviour, we act accordingly to achieve further reinforcement. In this view, our acts are likely to be at the mercy of external forces. In cognitive terms, motivation places much more emphasis on the individuals decisions. Ausubel (1968:368-379), for example, identified six needs undergirding the construct of motivation: a. The need for exploration, for seeing the other side of the mountain, for probing the unknown; b. The need for manipulation, for operating- to use Skinners term- on the environment and causing change; c. The need for activity, for movement and exercise, both physical and mental; d. The need for stimulation, the need to be stimulated by the environment, by the other people, or by ideas, thoughts, and feelings; e. The need for knowledge, the need to process and internalize the result of exploration, manipulation, activity, and stimulation, to resolve contradictions, to quest for solutions to problems and for self consistent systems of knowledge; f. Finally, the need for ego enhancement, for the self to be known and to be accepted and approved by others. 3) A constructivist view of motivation places even further emphasis on social context as well as individual person choices (Williams Burden 1997:120). Each person is motivated differently, and will therefore act on his or her environment in ways that are unique. Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation Edward Deci (1975:23) defined intrinsic motivation: â€Å"Intrinsically motivated activities are ones for which there is no apparent reward except the activity itself. People seem to engage in the activities for their own sake and not because they lead to an extrinsic reward†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.intrinsically motivated behaviours are aimed at bringing about certain internally rewarding consequences, namely, feelings of competence and self determination†. Extrinsically motivated behaviours, on the other hand, are carried out in anticipation of a reward from outside and beyond the self. Behaviours initiated solely to avoid punishment are also extrinsically motivated, even though numerous intrinsic benefits can ultimately accrue to those who instead, view punishment avoidance as a challenge that can build their sense of competence and self determination. The intrinsic and extrinsic continuum in motivation is applicable to foreign language classrooms and around the world. Regardless of the cultural beliefs and attitudes of learners and teachers, intrinsic and extrinsic factors can be easily identified (Dornyei and Csizer 1998). During the classroom observations, the researcher will identify whether the teacher use this kind of method. If the students communicate with their L1, should the teacher give a punishment or give them the motivation to communicate with L1 as long it will help the students to understand the whole lesson. 1.7. Significance of the study It is hope that the study will: Help all the teachers in selecting the best method in teaching the ESL classroom especially in the rural area. Determine the appropriateness of using the Malay in the ESL classroom. Enable the teacher to realize the important of using the L1 in the ESL classroom at the rural area. Help the students to gain their interest in learning the target language by giving them the opportunity to use their L1 while learning ESL. 1.8. Limitation of the study This study was undertaken with the following limitations; The small sample clearly does not represent the whole population of students in SMK in Felda Gedangsa. The sample taken is 40 students from one class in Felda Gedangsa. The reliability and validity of the survey instruments may be questioned. The questionnaire is not based on any existing survey instrument, which had been tested and/ or certified in terms of reliability and validity. The questionnaire is developed specifically for this study. The time constrain will limit the quality of the study. SMK Felda Gedangsa is situated in Ulu Selangor district and about 30KM from UPSI. It will take a long time in doing this study. The students level of proficiency is at the lower level and they will need help in understanding the questionnaires. 1.9. Summary Understanding of English is crucial for every student in the ESL classroom. Without a proper guide from the teacher, they will lose their motivation in learning. Teacher need to be ready with a proper methods and teaching skills and should not ignore the use of L1 in the classroom. With the lacking of vocabulary and understanding towards certain aspects in the learning process, surely the use of L1 in the classroom should be considered to guide the students. REVIEW OF LITERATURE 2.1. Introduction This paper provides a review of the literature on students L1 are being used in the ESL classroom especially in the rural area and find out if it is an effective teaching and learning tool. There are several studies which are significance to the focus of this study. The summaries of previous work related to the hypothesis of the study are listed below. Long (1985, 1996), adapted the input Hypothesis to include interaction. His modified Input Hypothesis (1996) focuses on negotiation of meaning that occurs when communication breaks down. It proposes that oral input that is simplified through interactional modification is more successful than non-interactionally modified input in promoting learner comprehension, which in turn facilitates language acquisition. This hypothesis claims that the modified output produced by learners who are interacting in order to negotiate meaning can also aid acquisition. In this view, which gives importance to input that has been simplified through interaction, there is a possible role for the use of the learners L1 in the interactive input. Modified must give the learner information related to the linguistic form that were problematic and the use of the L1 is a potential source of this critical information (Gillis, 2007). 2.2. Close studies on the Using of L1 in the ESL Classroom Research on the usage of the L1 in the ESL classroom is a vital has demonstrated that L1 are not only effective but necessary for adult ESL students with limited L1 literacy or schooling and that use of students linguistic resources can be beneficial at all levels of ESL (Auerbach 1993). Auerbach (1993), performed a research on the topic of â€Å"Do you believe that ESL students should be allowed to use their L1 in the ESL classroom†? Only 20% of the respondents gave an unqualified yes to the question; 30% gave an unqualified no, (with comments such as, Its a school policy and No but its hard); the remaining 50% said sometimes (with comments such as Usually not, but if I have tried several times to explain something in English and a student still doesnt understand, then I allow another student who speaks the same language to explain in that language; Theyre going to do it anyway; As a last resort). The essence of these comments is captured by the following response In general ESL students should be encouraged to use English as much as possible, but in reality this doesnt always work. Thus, despite the fact that 80% of the teachers allowed the use of the L1 at times, the English only axiom is so strong that they didnt trust their own practice. On the flip side, when the native language is used, practitioners, researchers, and learners consistently report positive results. Rivera (1990) outlines various models for incorporating the L1 into instruction, including initial literacy in the L1 (with or without simultaneous but separate ESL classes) and bilingual instruction (where both languages are utilized within one class). The first benefit of such programs at the beginning levels is that they attract previously un-served studentsstudents who had been unable to participate in ESL classes because of limited L1 literacy and schooling. Further, contrary to the claim that use of the L1 will slow the transition to and impede the development of thinking in English, numerous accounts suggest that it may actually facilitate this process. Shamash (1990), for example, describes an approach to teaching ESL used at the Invergarry Learning Center near Vancouver which might be considered heretical by some: Students start by writing about their lives in their L1 or a mixture of their L1 and English; this text is then translated into English with the help of bilingual tutors or learners and, as such, provides a natural bridge for overcoming problems of vocabulary, sentence structure and language confidence. At a certain point in the learning process, according to Shamash, the learner is willing to experiment and take risks with English. Thus, starting with the L1 provides a sense of security and validates the learners lived experiences, allowing them to express themselves while at the same time providing meaningful written material to work with. This research had shows us that the usage of L1 in the ESL classroom is sometimes considered as vital because of the students level of proficiency. Tang (2002), based on her studies, â€Å"Using the mother tongue in the Chinese EFL classroom† bear many similarities to Schweers (1999) study in a Spanish context. Both studies indicate that the mother tongue was used by the majority of teachers investigated, and both students and teachers responded positively toward its use. Minor discrepancies exist concerning the occasions when the L1 should be used. Some of these differences can be accounted for by the participants different levels of L2 language proficiency. The teachers participating in this study indicated that the translation of some words, complex ideas, or even whole passages is a good way to learn a foreign language. Her observation of the three classes suggests that without translation, learners would be likely to make unguided and often incorrect translations. This study also reveals that in the EFL classes observed Chinese plays only a supportive and facilitating role. The chief medium of communication in the class is still English. As with any other classroom technique, the use of the mother tongue is only a means to the end of improving foreign language proficiency. She agreed with the majority of student participants (about 63 percent combined) that no more than 10 percent of class time should be spent using Chinese. In her experience, this percentage decreases as the students English proficiency increases. Of course, a translation course would be an exception. Unlike Schweers student participants, the students in the present study are highly motivated to learn English. As English majors in the university, their English language proficiency is regarded as a symbol of their identity and a route to future academic and employment opportunities. Few of them feel that English is imposed on them or regard the use of English as a threat to their identity. Instead, they generally prefer greater or exclusive use of English in the classroom. In their view, Chinese should be used only when necessary to help them learn English better. The research seems to show that limited and judicious use of the mother tongue in the English classroom does not reduce students exposure to English, but rather can assist in the teaching and learning processes (Tang, 2002). Strohmeyer and McGrail (1988) found that allowing for the exploration of ideas in the L1 served to enhance students ESL writing. When students were given the choice of writing first in Spanish, they went on to write pieces in English that were considerably more developed than their usual ESL writing. These findings from practice are supported by Garcias (1991) more formal research on effective instructional practices which found that (a) academically successful students made the transition from Spanish to English without any pressure from teachers; and (b) they were able to progress systematically from writing in the native language in initial literacy to writing in English later. A recent study by Osburne and Harss-Covaleski (1991) suggested that the widely frowned upon practice of writing first in the L1 and then translating into the L2 is not harmful to the quality of the written product. They cite the conventional wisdom that students should be discouraged from translating as this will cause them to make more errors, result in rhetorically inappropriate texts, and distract them from thinking in Englishand that all these factors would negatively affect the quality of their writing. To investigate the validity of this claim, they compared ESL compositions written directly in English with others written first in the L1 and then translated into English; their results indicated no significant difference in the quality or quantity of the written products. They conclude, It seems then that there is no need for teachers to become overly anxious if students choose to employ translation as a composing strategy at times. Friedlander (1990) cited numerous other studie s reporting the beneficial effects of using the L1 for L2 composing; his own study provides further support for L1 use in planning ESL writing when knowledge of the topic has been acquired in the L1. Mirzaei Vaezi (2007), had been conducted the study of the effect of using translation from L1 to L2 as a teaching technique on the improvement of EFL Learners Linguistic Accuracy- Focus on form. Based on the results obtained from the statistical analyses in the study, it was discovered that the idea of the effectiveness of using translation from L1 to L2 as a teaching technique to improve a group of Iranian EFL learners linguistic accuracy was supported. Therefore, it can be concluded that translating form L1 to L2, using specific structures, can enhance learners linguistic accuracy within the scope of those structures. It also manifests that learners mother tongue is not a useless element in second or foreign language learning. In other words, mother tongue, if used purposefully and systematically, can have a constructive role in teaching other languages. In effect, the purpose of the present study was to join the three vertices of the triangle i.e., first language, translation, an d focus on form. Moreover, it can be claimed that translating sentences form L1 to L2, if selected purposefully, can push learners to use specific structures accurately when producing utterances in the second language. This mental practice in transforming an idea from mother language to the second language helps the learner tackle the psycho-linguistic challenge they have to face in producing second language in real life situations. Nevertheless, when utilizing this teaching technique, the learners should be bewared about the structural differences existing between languages which may cause negative interference from their L1. In other words, learners should be warned that there is not always a structural correspondence between their first language and the language they are learning. To make it short, translation from L1 to L2 is a kind of practice which makes the learners use specific L2 structures accurately in order to express L1 ideas. This transformation—mental translation from L1 to L2â €”is a natural and sometimes inevitable process which is mostly experienced by the learners of lower levels. Consequently, as discussed above, the technique used in this study is a means through which learners can practice producing L2 grammatically correct sentences which enables them to perform accurately in communicative situations (Mirzaei Vaezi, 2007). Translation from L1 to L2 was not a strange process; nonetheless, it might not have been dealt with through systematic and research-based studies yet. Although the word translation and even mother tongue has been abominated by many so-called innovatory-oriented teachers, this study demonstrated that there are judicious ways in which language teachers can use mother tongue, in general, and translation from L1 to L2, in particular, in their instruction with the purpose of improving learners proficiency. In addition, mother tongue is truly a very rich source of linguistic knowledge with which any L2 learner is already equipped, and it does not seem reasonable to deprive our learners from using this recourse at the expense of exercising an English-only atmosphere in our classrooms. Therefore, it can be suggested that teachers be familiarized with advantages of using learners mother tongue in EFL/ESL classrooms and they should be reasonably given enough leeway to use this resource constructively. In particular, language teachers can use the technique presented in this study, i.e. using translation from L1 to L2, as a communicative task to promote their learners linguistic accuracy. Therefore, it seems reasonable to allocate some time to the training of teachers in this regard (Mirzaei Vaezi, 2007). Schweers (1999) had done a research on the attitudes toward the use of Spanish in the English classroom among the students and the teachers in Puerto Rican. A high percentage (88.7%) of the student participants in this study felt that Spanish should be used in their English classes. All of the teachers reported using Spanish to some degree. Approximately 99 percent of the students responded that they like their teachers to use only English in the classroom. Very noticeable is the 86 percent of students who would like Spanish used to explain difficult concepts. Only 22 percent of teachers saw this as an appropriate use. Students also responded notably higher than teachers on the following uses for Spanish: to help students feel more comfortable and confident, to check comprehension, and to define new vocabulary items. Neither students nor teachers saw a use for the L1 in testing. A notable percentage of students would like Spanish to be used in English class either between 10 and 39 p ercent of the time. A sizeable number of students like the use of Spanish because it helps them when they feel lost. About 87 percent of students feel Spanish facilitates their learning of English between â€Å"a little† and â€Å"a lot,† and about 57 percent think it helps from â€Å"fairly much† to â€Å"a lot.† These results showed that in English classes in a Puerto Rican university, Spanish should be used to some degree. Students feel there are clear cases where Spanish will facilitate their comprehension of what is happening in class. A majority also agree that the use of Spanish helps them to learn English. Studying students reactions to the use of the L1 in English classes, Terence Doyle (1997), in his presentation at TESOL 97, reported that students in a study he conducted claimed that the L1 was used approximately 90 percent of the time in their classes. Some 65 percent of these students preferred the use of the L1 in their classes sometimes or often. While the first figure is comparable to the one he found in his study, the second is higher than the percentage in his study. Romstedt (2000) had conducted a research of the effects of L1 Pre-writing discussion on ESL writing. The subjects of the study were thirty five graduate and undergraduate students, both male and female representing six native languages at two different levels of intensive English instruction. The general conclusi Native Language in Foreign Language Learning Native Language in Foreign Language Learning 1.1 Introduction The debate over whether English language classrooms should include or exclude students native language has been a controversial issue for a long time (Brown, 2000). Although the use of mother tongue was banned by the supporters of the Direct Method at the end of the nineteenth century, the positive role of the mother tongue has recurrently been acknowledged as a rich resource which, if used judiciously, can assist second language learning and teaching (Cook, 2001). Therefore, this research study tries to open up a new horizon for English instructors to find a thoughtful way to use learners mother tongue in second language teaching. The technique in which L1 was used in this study was translation from L1 to L2, a technique which was rarely used by EFL teachers. Atkinson (1987) was one of the first and chief advocates of mother tongue use in the communicative classroom. He points out the methodological gap in the literature concerning the use of the mother tongue and argues a case in favour of its restricted and principled use, mainly in accuracy-oriented tasks. In his article, Atkinson (1987) clearly stated that translation to the target language which emphasizes a recently taught language item is a means to reinforce structural, conceptual and sociolinguistic differences between the native and target languages. In his view, even though this activity is not communicative, it aims at improving accuracy of the newly learned structures. Similarly, this research aimed at investigating the effect of translation from L1 to L2 on the accurate use of the structures. The arguments in supports of using the learners mother tongue in L2 instruction clearly reveal that not only doesnt the use of first language have a negative impact on L2 learning, but it can be factor to help students improve the way they learn a second language. Although the English Only paradigm continues to be dominant in communicative language teaching , research into teacher practice reveals that the L1 is used as a learning resource in many ESL classes (Auerbach, 1993). Auerbach added that when the native language was used, practitioners, researchers, and learners consistently report positive results. Furthermore, he identifies the following uses of mother tongue in the classroom: classroom management, language analysis and presenting rules that govern grammar, discussing cross-cultural issues, giving instructions or prompts, explaining errors, and checking comprehension. Although the provision of maximum L2 exposure to the learners seems essential, L1 can be used alongside L2 as a complement. In this regard, Turnbull (2001) stated that maximizing the target language use does not and should not mean that it is harmful for the teacher to use the L1. â€Å"a principle that promotes maximal teacher use of the target language acknowledges that the L1 and target language can exist simultaneously (p. 153). Similarly, Stern (1992) stated that the use of L1 and target language should be seen as complementary, depending on the characteristics and stages of the language learning process (p. 285). On the other hand, overuse of L1 will naturally reduce the amount of exposure to L2. Therefore, attempt should be made to keep a balance between L1 and L2 use. In this regard, Turnbull (2001) acknowledges that although it is efficient to make a quick switch to the L1 to ensure, for instance, whether students understand a difficult grammar concept or an unknown word, it is crucial for teachers to use the target language as much as possible in contexts in which students spend only short periods of time in class, and when they have little contact with the target language outside the classroom. 1.2 Background to the problem The Integrated Secondary School Curriculum or Kurikulum Bersepadu Sekolah Menengah (KBSM) was planned in accordance with the National Education Philosophy. The main goal of KBSM was based on the integrated self-development with orientation towards society or nation (Mak Soon Sang, 2003). Four language skills namely listening, speaking, reading and writing are incorporated in the English syllabus proficiency in order to meet their needs to use English in everyday life, for knowledge acquisition, and for future workplace needs (Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia, 2000). My personal experience as a learner has shown me that moderate and judicious use of the mother tongue can aid and facilitate the learning and teaching of the target language, a view shared by many colleagues of mine. However the value of using the mother tongue is a neglected topic in the TESL methodology literature. This omission, together with the widely advocated principle that the native language should not be used in the second language classroom, makes most teachers, experienced or not, feels uneasy about using L1 or permitting its use in the classroom, even when there is a need to do so. How do students and teachers look at this issue? Schweers (1999) conducted a study with EFL students and their teachers in a Spanish context to investigate their attitudes toward using L1 and in the L2 classroom. His result indicates that the majority of students and teachers agreed that Spanish should be used in the EFL classroom (Schweers 1999). Inspired by his research and driven by my own interest, the researcher decided to carry out a similar study on the use of the native language (Malay) in the Malaysian context. However, differences exist between Schweers study and mine. 1.3. Statement of the problem Many rural school students have difficulty in understanding English, and they have often found it difficult to read English books on their own (Ratnawati and Ismail, 2003). Students lack of proficiency in English deprives them of the opportunities open to those who are able to use the language well. Recently, the teaching and learning of English has been discussed widely in Malaysia. This is because the low level of English proficiency among students hinders them from acquiring knowledge globally. Students L1 are being use in the ESL classroom especially in the rural area to help them understand English better and find out if it is an effective teaching and learning tool. Because of the students difficulty in understanding the language, teachers need to assist them thoroughly in the learning process. With the using of the L1, this will gain their interest to stay focus in the class and not being de-motivated in learning the target language. The prohibition of the native language would maximize the effectiveness of learning the target language will be a question that we need to find out. 1.4. Purposes of the study The purpose of the study is to determine whether the L1 (Malay language) are use frequently in the rural ESL classroom. The important of this study is to find out whether L1 works as an effective teaching and learning instrument. 1.5. Research questions Research questions for this study are; How frequent the Malay language was used in the Malaysian English classroom and for what purposes? Can prohibition of L1 (Malay language) maximize the interest of using English in the classroom? What are the perception of the students and the teachers towards using Malay in the English classroom? 1.6. Theoretical For this study, the researcher referred to the theory of SLA that interrelated set of hypothesis or claims about how people become proficient in a second language. In a summary of research findings on SLA, Lightbown (1985: 176-180) made the following claims: Adults and adolescents can â€Å"acquire† a second language. The learner creates a systematic inter-language that is often characterized by the same language as the first language, as well as others that appear to be based on the learners own native language. There are predictable sequences in acquisition so that certain structures have to be acquired before others can be integrated. Practice does not make perfect. Knowing language rule does not mean one will be able to use it in communicative interaction. Isolated explicit error correction is usually effective in changing language behavior. For most adult learners, acquisition stop-â€Å"fossilizes†-before the learner has achieved native-like mastery of the target language. One cannot achieve native-like or non native-like command of a second language in one hour a day. The learners task is enormous because language is enormously complex. A learners ability to understand language in a meaningful context exceeds his or her ability to comprehend de-contextualized language and to produce language of comparable complexity and accuracy. The hypothesis will be the first tool for the measurement of how the students in the rural ESL classroom comprehend with target language. Learning is a long life process so the students need a proper guide to lead them in gaining the language proficiency. There are some modifications that need to be made in using these hypotheses so it will be suit to the learners need in the rural area. There are some mistakes that made by the learners that due to interference from their first language and the learners errors should be corrected as soon as they are made in order to prevent the formation of bad habits. The acquisition-learning hypothesis Stephen Krashen (1977) claimed that adult second language learners have two means for internalizing the target language. The first is â€Å"acquisition†, a subconscious and intuitive process of constructing the system of a language. The second means is a conscious â€Å"learning† process in which learners attend to form, figure out rules, and are generally aware of their own process. According to Krashen, â€Å"fluency in second language performance is due to what we have acquired, not what we have learned† (1981a:99). Adults should, therefore, do as much acquiring as possible in order to achieve communicative fluency; otherwise, they will get bogged of language and to watching their own progress. For Krashen (1982), our conscious learning processes and our subconscious process mutually exclusive: learning cannot become acquisition. This claim of no interface between acquisition and learning is used to strengthen the argument for recommending large doses of acqui sition activity in the classroom, with only a very minor role assigned to learning. The input hypothesis Krashens claims that an important â€Å"condition for language acquisition to occur is that the acquirer understand (via hearing or reading input language that contains structure a bit beyond his or her current level of competence†¦..if an acquirer is at stage or level i , the input he or she understands should contain i +1† (Krashen1981:100). In other words, the language that learners are exposed to should be just far enough beyond their current competence that they can understand most of it but still challenged to make progress. The corollary to this is that input should neither be so far beyond their reach that they are overwhelmed (this might be, say, i + 2) nor so close to their current stage that they are not challenged at all (i + 0). Important parts of the Input Hypothesis are recommendation that speaking not be though directly or very early in the language classroom. Speech will be emerging once the acquirer has built up enough comprehensible input ( i + 1). Success in a foreign language can be attributed to input alone. Such a theory ascribes little credit to learners and their own active engagement in the process. Moreover, it is important to distinguish between input and intake. Intake is what you take with you over a period of time and can later remember. Krashen (1983) did suggest that input gets converted to knowledge through a learners current internalized rule system and the new input. The application of these theories will help the study in measuring how effective the use of L1 in the ESL classroom based on the prior knowledge of the participants and in what way the theories will help the researches defines the result of the studies. Motivation Theory Various definitions of motivation have been proposed over decades of research and three different perspectives emerge: From a behaviourist perspective, motivation was seen in matter of fact terms. It is quite simply the anticipation or reward. Driven to acquire positive reinforcement, and driven by previous reinforcement, and driven by previous experiences of reward for behaviour, we act accordingly to achieve further reinforcement. In this view, our acts are likely to be at the mercy of external forces. In cognitive terms, motivation places much more emphasis on the individuals decisions. Ausubel (1968:368-379), for example, identified six needs undergirding the construct of motivation: a. The need for exploration, for seeing the other side of the mountain, for probing the unknown; b. The need for manipulation, for operating- to use Skinners term- on the environment and causing change; c. The need for activity, for movement and exercise, both physical and mental; d. The need for stimulation, the need to be stimulated by the environment, by the other people, or by ideas, thoughts, and feelings; e. The need for knowledge, the need to process and internalize the result of exploration, manipulation, activity, and stimulation, to resolve contradictions, to quest for solutions to problems and for self consistent systems of knowledge; f. Finally, the need for ego enhancement, for the self to be known and to be accepted and approved by others. 3) A constructivist view of motivation places even further emphasis on social context as well as individual person choices (Williams Burden 1997:120). Each person is motivated differently, and will therefore act on his or her environment in ways that are unique. Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation Edward Deci (1975:23) defined intrinsic motivation: â€Å"Intrinsically motivated activities are ones for which there is no apparent reward except the activity itself. People seem to engage in the activities for their own sake and not because they lead to an extrinsic reward†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.intrinsically motivated behaviours are aimed at bringing about certain internally rewarding consequences, namely, feelings of competence and self determination†. Extrinsically motivated behaviours, on the other hand, are carried out in anticipation of a reward from outside and beyond the self. Behaviours initiated solely to avoid punishment are also extrinsically motivated, even though numerous intrinsic benefits can ultimately accrue to those who instead, view punishment avoidance as a challenge that can build their sense of competence and self determination. The intrinsic and extrinsic continuum in motivation is applicable to foreign language classrooms and around the world. Regardless of the cultural beliefs and attitudes of learners and teachers, intrinsic and extrinsic factors can be easily identified (Dornyei and Csizer 1998). During the classroom observations, the researcher will identify whether the teacher use this kind of method. If the students communicate with their L1, should the teacher give a punishment or give them the motivation to communicate with L1 as long it will help the students to understand the whole lesson. 1.7. Significance of the study It is hope that the study will: Help all the teachers in selecting the best method in teaching the ESL classroom especially in the rural area. Determine the appropriateness of using the Malay in the ESL classroom. Enable the teacher to realize the important of using the L1 in the ESL classroom at the rural area. Help the students to gain their interest in learning the target language by giving them the opportunity to use their L1 while learning ESL. 1.8. Limitation of the study This study was undertaken with the following limitations; The small sample clearly does not represent the whole population of students in SMK in Felda Gedangsa. The sample taken is 40 students from one class in Felda Gedangsa. The reliability and validity of the survey instruments may be questioned. The questionnaire is not based on any existing survey instrument, which had been tested and/ or certified in terms of reliability and validity. The questionnaire is developed specifically for this study. The time constrain will limit the quality of the study. SMK Felda Gedangsa is situated in Ulu Selangor district and about 30KM from UPSI. It will take a long time in doing this study. The students level of proficiency is at the lower level and they will need help in understanding the questionnaires. 1.9. Summary Understanding of English is crucial for every student in the ESL classroom. Without a proper guide from the teacher, they will lose their motivation in learning. Teacher need to be ready with a proper methods and teaching skills and should not ignore the use of L1 in the classroom. With the lacking of vocabulary and understanding towards certain aspects in the learning process, surely the use of L1 in the classroom should be considered to guide the students. REVIEW OF LITERATURE 2.1. Introduction This paper provides a review of the literature on students L1 are being used in the ESL classroom especially in the rural area and find out if it is an effective teaching and learning tool. There are several studies which are significance to the focus of this study. The summaries of previous work related to the hypothesis of the study are listed below. Long (1985, 1996), adapted the input Hypothesis to include interaction. His modified Input Hypothesis (1996) focuses on negotiation of meaning that occurs when communication breaks down. It proposes that oral input that is simplified through interactional modification is more successful than non-interactionally modified input in promoting learner comprehension, which in turn facilitates language acquisition. This hypothesis claims that the modified output produced by learners who are interacting in order to negotiate meaning can also aid acquisition. In this view, which gives importance to input that has been simplified through interaction, there is a possible role for the use of the learners L1 in the interactive input. Modified must give the learner information related to the linguistic form that were problematic and the use of the L1 is a potential source of this critical information (Gillis, 2007). 2.2. Close studies on the Using of L1 in the ESL Classroom Research on the usage of the L1 in the ESL classroom is a vital has demonstrated that L1 are not only effective but necessary for adult ESL students with limited L1 literacy or schooling and that use of students linguistic resources can be beneficial at all levels of ESL (Auerbach 1993). Auerbach (1993), performed a research on the topic of â€Å"Do you believe that ESL students should be allowed to use their L1 in the ESL classroom†? Only 20% of the respondents gave an unqualified yes to the question; 30% gave an unqualified no, (with comments such as, Its a school policy and No but its hard); the remaining 50% said sometimes (with comments such as Usually not, but if I have tried several times to explain something in English and a student still doesnt understand, then I allow another student who speaks the same language to explain in that language; Theyre going to do it anyway; As a last resort). The essence of these comments is captured by the following response In general ESL students should be encouraged to use English as much as possible, but in reality this doesnt always work. Thus, despite the fact that 80% of the teachers allowed the use of the L1 at times, the English only axiom is so strong that they didnt trust their own practice. On the flip side, when the native language is used, practitioners, researchers, and learners consistently report positive results. Rivera (1990) outlines various models for incorporating the L1 into instruction, including initial literacy in the L1 (with or without simultaneous but separate ESL classes) and bilingual instruction (where both languages are utilized within one class). The first benefit of such programs at the beginning levels is that they attract previously un-served studentsstudents who had been unable to participate in ESL classes because of limited L1 literacy and schooling. Further, contrary to the claim that use of the L1 will slow the transition to and impede the development of thinking in English, numerous accounts suggest that it may actually facilitate this process. Shamash (1990), for example, describes an approach to teaching ESL used at the Invergarry Learning Center near Vancouver which might be considered heretical by some: Students start by writing about their lives in their L1 or a mixture of their L1 and English; this text is then translated into English with the help of bilingual tutors or learners and, as such, provides a natural bridge for overcoming problems of vocabulary, sentence structure and language confidence. At a certain point in the learning process, according to Shamash, the learner is willing to experiment and take risks with English. Thus, starting with the L1 provides a sense of security and validates the learners lived experiences, allowing them to express themselves while at the same time providing meaningful written material to work with. This research had shows us that the usage of L1 in the ESL classroom is sometimes considered as vital because of the students level of proficiency. Tang (2002), based on her studies, â€Å"Using the mother tongue in the Chinese EFL classroom† bear many similarities to Schweers (1999) study in a Spanish context. Both studies indicate that the mother tongue was used by the majority of teachers investigated, and both students and teachers responded positively toward its use. Minor discrepancies exist concerning the occasions when the L1 should be used. Some of these differences can be accounted for by the participants different levels of L2 language proficiency. The teachers participating in this study indicated that the translation of some words, complex ideas, or even whole passages is a good way to learn a foreign language. Her observation of the three classes suggests that without translation, learners would be likely to make unguided and often incorrect translations. This study also reveals that in the EFL classes observed Chinese plays only a supportive and facilitating role. The chief medium of communication in the class is still English. As with any other classroom technique, the use of the mother tongue is only a means to the end of improving foreign language proficiency. She agreed with the majority of student participants (about 63 percent combined) that no more than 10 percent of class time should be spent using Chinese. In her experience, this percentage decreases as the students English proficiency increases. Of course, a translation course would be an exception. Unlike Schweers student participants, the students in the present study are highly motivated to learn English. As English majors in the university, their English language proficiency is regarded as a symbol of their identity and a route to future academic and employment opportunities. Few of them feel that English is imposed on them or regard the use of English as a threat to their identity. Instead, they generally prefer greater or exclusive use of English in the classroom. In their view, Chinese should be used only when necessary to help them learn English better. The research seems to show that limited and judicious use of the mother tongue in the English classroom does not reduce students exposure to English, but rather can assist in the teaching and learning processes (Tang, 2002). Strohmeyer and McGrail (1988) found that allowing for the exploration of ideas in the L1 served to enhance students ESL writing. When students were given the choice of writing first in Spanish, they went on to write pieces in English that were considerably more developed than their usual ESL writing. These findings from practice are supported by Garcias (1991) more formal research on effective instructional practices which found that (a) academically successful students made the transition from Spanish to English without any pressure from teachers; and (b) they were able to progress systematically from writing in the native language in initial literacy to writing in English later. A recent study by Osburne and Harss-Covaleski (1991) suggested that the widely frowned upon practice of writing first in the L1 and then translating into the L2 is not harmful to the quality of the written product. They cite the conventional wisdom that students should be discouraged from translating as this will cause them to make more errors, result in rhetorically inappropriate texts, and distract them from thinking in Englishand that all these factors would negatively affect the quality of their writing. To investigate the validity of this claim, they compared ESL compositions written directly in English with others written first in the L1 and then translated into English; their results indicated no significant difference in the quality or quantity of the written products. They conclude, It seems then that there is no need for teachers to become overly anxious if students choose to employ translation as a composing strategy at times. Friedlander (1990) cited numerous other studie s reporting the beneficial effects of using the L1 for L2 composing; his own study provides further support for L1 use in planning ESL writing when knowledge of the topic has been acquired in the L1. Mirzaei Vaezi (2007), had been conducted the study of the effect of using translation from L1 to L2 as a teaching technique on the improvement of EFL Learners Linguistic Accuracy- Focus on form. Based on the results obtained from the statistical analyses in the study, it was discovered that the idea of the effectiveness of using translation from L1 to L2 as a teaching technique to improve a group of Iranian EFL learners linguistic accuracy was supported. Therefore, it can be concluded that translating form L1 to L2, using specific structures, can enhance learners linguistic accuracy within the scope of those structures. It also manifests that learners mother tongue is not a useless element in second or foreign language learning. In other words, mother tongue, if used purposefully and systematically, can have a constructive role in teaching other languages. In effect, the purpose of the present study was to join the three vertices of the triangle i.e., first language, translation, an d focus on form. Moreover, it can be claimed that translating sentences form L1 to L2, if selected purposefully, can push learners to use specific structures accurately when producing utterances in the second language. This mental practice in transforming an idea from mother language to the second language helps the learner tackle the psycho-linguistic challenge they have to face in producing second language in real life situations. Nevertheless, when utilizing this teaching technique, the learners should be bewared about the structural differences existing between languages which may cause negative interference from their L1. In other words, learners should be warned that there is not always a structural correspondence between their first language and the language they are learning. To make it short, translation from L1 to L2 is a kind of practice which makes the learners use specific L2 structures accurately in order to express L1 ideas. This transformation—mental translation from L1 to L2â €”is a natural and sometimes inevitable process which is mostly experienced by the learners of lower levels. Consequently, as discussed above, the technique used in this study is a means through which learners can practice producing L2 grammatically correct sentences which enables them to perform accurately in communicative situations (Mirzaei Vaezi, 2007). Translation from L1 to L2 was not a strange process; nonetheless, it might not have been dealt with through systematic and research-based studies yet. Although the word translation and even mother tongue has been abominated by many so-called innovatory-oriented teachers, this study demonstrated that there are judicious ways in which language teachers can use mother tongue, in general, and translation from L1 to L2, in particular, in their instruction with the purpose of improving learners proficiency. In addition, mother tongue is truly a very rich source of linguistic knowledge with which any L2 learner is already equipped, and it does not seem reasonable to deprive our learners from using this recourse at the expense of exercising an English-only atmosphere in our classrooms. Therefore, it can be suggested that teachers be familiarized with advantages of using learners mother tongue in EFL/ESL classrooms and they should be reasonably given enough leeway to use this resource constructively. In particular, language teachers can use the technique presented in this study, i.e. using translation from L1 to L2, as a communicative task to promote their learners linguistic accuracy. Therefore, it seems reasonable to allocate some time to the training of teachers in this regard (Mirzaei Vaezi, 2007). Schweers (1999) had done a research on the attitudes toward the use of Spanish in the English classroom among the students and the teachers in Puerto Rican. A high percentage (88.7%) of the student participants in this study felt that Spanish should be used in their English classes. All of the teachers reported using Spanish to some degree. Approximately 99 percent of the students responded that they like their teachers to use only English in the classroom. Very noticeable is the 86 percent of students who would like Spanish used to explain difficult concepts. Only 22 percent of teachers saw this as an appropriate use. Students also responded notably higher than teachers on the following uses for Spanish: to help students feel more comfortable and confident, to check comprehension, and to define new vocabulary items. Neither students nor teachers saw a use for the L1 in testing. A notable percentage of students would like Spanish to be used in English class either between 10 and 39 p ercent of the time. A sizeable number of students like the use of Spanish because it helps them when they feel lost. About 87 percent of students feel Spanish facilitates their learning of English between â€Å"a little† and â€Å"a lot,† and about 57 percent think it helps from â€Å"fairly much† to â€Å"a lot.† These results showed that in English classes in a Puerto Rican university, Spanish should be used to some degree. Students feel there are clear cases where Spanish will facilitate their comprehension of what is happening in class. A majority also agree that the use of Spanish helps them to learn English. Studying students reactions to the use of the L1 in English classes, Terence Doyle (1997), in his presentation at TESOL 97, reported that students in a study he conducted claimed that the L1 was used approximately 90 percent of the time in their classes. Some 65 percent of these students preferred the use of the L1 in their classes sometimes or often. While the first figure is comparable to the one he found in his study, the second is higher than the percentage in his study. Romstedt (2000) had conducted a research of the effects of L1 Pre-writing discussion on ESL writing. The subjects of the study were thirty five graduate and undergraduate students, both male and female representing six native languages at two different levels of intensive English instruction. The general conclusi

Smuggling Of Nuclear Material Essay -- essays research papers

Smuggling of Nuclear Material Over the past five years the former states of the Soviet Union haven't been able to prevent the leakage of nuclear material. Nuclear materials and technologies are more accessible now than at any other time in history, due to the breakup of the Soviet Union and the worsening of economic conditions. No longer does the Soviet KGB, the Soviet military and the Soviet border guards have the control to stop the smuggling of nuclear material's. With the Cold War being over, there is a huge stockpile of over 100 nuclear sites (See Appendix A). Russia, alone has an inventory of 1,300 tons of highly enriched uranium (HEU), and 165 tons of weapon usable plutonium. Such material is coming into high demand on the market. Terrorist, organized crime and countries with nuclear ambition, are high bid contenders for the material. The United States is also becoming involved for the safety of preventing a nuclear disaster. The U.S. has just begun their large task and with Russia's worsening economy, smuggling of nuclear material will continue.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  During the Cold War the security of Soviet nuclear weapons and missile materials was based on a highly centralized military system and operating within a strong political authority. The workers back then where well disciplined and each individual new his/her role. The workers were among the best treated and loyal to the Russian military. They are now suffering hardships and are forced to scavenge anything to pay for their food, rent and social services.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  A new trend is already occurring with some of the workers . There are those that will seek employment out of the nuclear field and in the commercial sector, where salaries are higher. Then the unfortunate who lose their jobs and find no work. The scarier thought is that the uncontempt people in Russia's nuclear complex with access to nuclear materials will sell themselves, to make a quick buck. Most suppliers of nuclear material, were insiders who had worked or were then working at nuclear research institutes or naval bases. Most perpetrators had no customers in hand but new that a quick profit existed (See Appendix B).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The first confirmed case involving the diversion of HEU occurred at the Luch Scientific Production Association in Podolsk. Between May and September of... ...;  Ã‚  Ã‚  The smuggling of nuclear material out of Russia has become proratable to the low income worker as well as to the benefit of terrorist, organism crime and nuclear research centers. There exist no security at most of the nuclear facilities and so apprehending the material is quit easy. More cases of unsuccessful attempts are becoming known to the media, but any successful attempts the government, both Russia and the U.S have decline to answer. If left unchecked it may even escalate to the complex level of drug smuggling. Work Cited List   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Thomas B. Cochran, Robert S. Norriss, Making the Russian Bomb: From Stalin to Yelsin, Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1995.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  John Deutch,  ³The Threat of Nuclear Diversion Statement for Record, ² CIA, March 20, 1996.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Alexei Lebedev, in  ³Russian Weapons Plutonium Storage Termed Unsafe by Minatom Official, ² Nucleonics Week, April 28, 1994.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Weclliam C. Potter,  ³Arms Control Today, ² Monterey Institute of Internation Studies, October 1995. Paul Woessner,  ³Nuclear Material Trafficking: An Interim Assessment,  ³ Bridgeway

Family Relation Portrayal in Korean Films Essay

It has been said of cinema that it is much lesser an art that it should be because it cannot afford the unpredictable. Therefore it seeks the security of successfully established formulas (Encyclopaedia Britannica 904). This may be the reason why Korean films, like most Asian films, tend to focus on domestic issues. The most important part of Korean life is family, and Koreans are proud of their excellent relationship among family members. Members of the family are tied to each other by very strong bonds. Over the years, however, the Korean family has undergone tremendous change in terms of structure and function. These changes in family structure and function are dramatically mirrored in Korean films. Korean films show viewers about how the Korean family has evolved over the last few years. In addition, Korean films reflect the rapid change that the structure and function of the Korean family is undergoing. Value for Family Family welfare is much more important to Koreans than individual needs (â€Å"South Korea – Language, Culture, Customs and Etiquette†). This may be the reason why Korean families are called a ‘small society’. The action of each family member becomes a reflection of the rest of the family. Koreans put into mind that family is the most important group for themselves and for their country (â€Å"Korean Family†). The Korean value for family is depicted in the film A Romantic Papa, a Korean film released in 1960. This is a story about an employee at an insurance company who is the head of a happy household which consists of his wife, two sons and three daughters. When his company began downsizing, however, he is forced into retirement. He does not tell his family about losing his job because of fear of disappointing them. His children learn the truth as they thought of a way of comforting their father. A Romantic Papa is a film which depicts the traditional Korean family. The film also shows that the father holds supreme power in the family. When the protagonist loses his job, he does not tell his family because he does not want to disappoint them. This goes to show the great value that Koreans place over their families. In an unconventional sort of way, the film also shows the father, who holds supreme power in the family, stepping down to relinquish his authority to the next generation. A Romantic Papa was adapted to the big screen from a popular radio drama. It was directed by Shin Sang-Okk and starred Choi Eun-Hee, Kim Jin-Kyu, Shin Seong-II, Kim Seung-Ho and Joo Jeung-Nyeo. (â€Å"100 Korean Films†). Mr. Park, which was also released in 1960, is another Korean film which depicts the traditional Korean family. The film is about a man who has provided for his children by repairing charcoal fireplaces. He disapproves of the fact that his eldest child is dating a hoodlum. He is also unhappy that his younger daughter is dating her co-worker. He, however, bestows his blessing upon his son when he expresses the desire to marry. His eldest daughter runs away and his son asks his permission to work in Thailand after marriage. The film ends with him accepting the man his eldest child wants to marry while granting permission to his son to go to Thailand. The film is Korea’s representative family melodrama. It reveals the conflict of values through the clash between the protagonist and his children. The film was directed by Kang Dae-Jin. It starred Kim Seung-Ho, Cho Mi-Ryeong, Kim Jin-Kyu and hwang Jeong-Sun. (â€Å"100 Korean Films†) The Extended Family The extended family was the social norm about 50 to 60 years ago in Korea (Bae). This is reflected in the film Festival which was released in Korea in 1996. Festival was directed by Im Kwon-Taek and stars Ahn Seong-Ki. A film about family, Festival is about a renowned writer who received word that his mother had passed away. The death of his mother elicited different emotional responses from various persons. As the funeral begins, so did conflict deepen among his family members. As the funeral progresses, their conflicts find gradual resolution. Festival is about filial piety, a Confucian ideal that places the virtue of caring for one’s parents among all else. Filial piety connotes being good to the parents and to take care of them. It connotes engaging in good conduct towards parents and towards society so as to bring a good name to the parents and ancestors. It also means performing the duties of a job well to obtain the material means to support the parents. The film The Birth of a Family also depicts extended family life. Released in 2006, the first part of the film is about Mi-ra and her trouble-making brother, Hyung-chul. After being discharged from the military, Hyung-chul goes missing. He comes back five years later with a middle-aged woman whom he introduces as his wife. Mi-ra allows them to stay with her at the family home until Mi-ra’s daughter Chae-hyun arrives and the three reach a breaking point. The second part of the film concerns a young woman called Sun-kyung whose relationship with her estranged mother is aggravated by the mother’s relationship with a married man. Her mother dies of cancer, however, and Sun Kyung must care for her half-brother Gyeong-suk. The third part of the film brings together the two story lines with the relationship of Chae-hyun and Gyeong-suk who is accepted in the end by Chae-hyun’s adopted family from the first part of the film (â€Å"The Birth of a Family†). The Birth of a Family was directed by Kim Tae-Yong. It starred Moon So-ri, Kong Hyo-jin, Jeong Yu-mi and Bong Tae-gyu. Extended family is also portrayed in the 1998 film A Quiet Family. This is the story of a family who buys a hotel in the mountains. At first, no one comes to check in at the hotel but after a while a guest checks in and dies. Two more guests arrive and suffer that same predicament, and soon the bodies start piling up. This movie is a comedy but effectively portrays the modern extended family and their relationship to each other (â€Å"The Quiet Family†). The Quiet Family was directed by Ji-woon Kim and starred In-hwan Park and Mun-hee Na. Single Parents, Divorce and Late Marriages It is said that the economic crisis in the late 1990s was the catalyst in changing the Korean family structure in an essential way. Before this, concepts such as single parents, divorce, late marriage and having children at a later age were unheard of to most Koreans. Today, however, this is no longer the case (Bae). Mirroring the theme of being a single parent is the film Mother which is a Korean film released in 2010. Mother is the story of a Hye-ja, a single mother who sells herbs and acupuncture treatments to support her mentally slow son. Her son, however, becomes involved in the murder of a schoolgirl and is thrown into jail. This is when Hye-ja’s quest to prove her son’s innocence begins (Harris). The film shows the hardships and difficulties of being a single parent and what a mother’s love can do for her beloved child. Mother was directed by Bong Joon-ho and starred Kim Hye-ja and Won Bin. The film stayed within the top 50 films on the United States box office. Being a single parent is also depicted in the film A Family which was released in Korea in 2004. A Family is about the extraordinary love between a father and his daughter. Pickpocket Jeong-eun comes back home to a father and an eight-year old brother after being in prison for two years. Her father Joo-suk loves her dearly but does not know how to express it. The film A Family is about troubled relationships and conflict between family members, but above all, it is a story about family in these modern times (â€Å"A Family†). A film that also depicts the hardships of being a single parent is The Way Home, a Korean film that was released in 2002. The Way Home is the story of a spoiled city boy whose single mother ships him off to his grandmother in a rural town. The grandmother is a hunchback and a mute who works hard without complaining. The boy disrespects his grandmother at first but learns a lesson about love and selflessness after seeing all the sacrifices she made for him. The film is a drama about the healing power of love. The unconditional love the grandmother gives to the boy is something that he is not used to. This eventually softens him. He also begins to see the downside to his selfishness (â€Å"The Way Home†). Single parenthood is also shown in Marathon, a 2005 film which deals with an autistic youth training to be a marathon runner. The story is primarily about the relationship between the boy and his mother. Because of his condition, his mother controls various aspects of his life in the name of ‘protection’. The film also tackles the realities of being mentally ill (â€Å"Marathon†). Marathon became the runaway box office smash of 2005. The film marked the directorial debut of Jeong Yun-Cheol and starred Cho Seung-Woo and Kim Mi-Sook. In 2007, the film Cherry Tomato tackled single parenthood by way of a grandfather caring for his granddaughter. When his son is released from prison and steals his savings and his bicycle-drawn cart is destroyed, he ends up trying to steal meat for his hungry granddaughter (â€Å"Cherry Tomato†). This film depicts the love a grandfather has for his granddaughter and the actions that he is capable of doing in the name of love. Cherry Tomato was directed by former television producer Jeong Yeong-bae and starred Sin Goo and Kim Hyang-ki. Meanwhile, the theme of divorce is exemplified in the film The Marriage Life which is a film released in Korea in 1992. The Marriage Life is about a couple who gets married for love despite objection from their family and friends. Their married life seems successful at first until endlessly busy nights made conversation almost nonexistent. Their marriage then begins to suffer. Their clashes began to become intense that they finally resort to divorce (â€Å"100 Korean Films†). Marriage Life was directed by Kim Yui-seok and starred Choi Min-Su and Shim Hye-Jin.

Juan Peron

Peron in the Advancement and History of Argentina During the 19th century in Argentina, the country advanced through many different historical changes. These changes included changes within their political system, government, and changes that would affect both the laws and the Argentine people all together. During the earlier 19th century, Argentina went through a stage of depression. It wasn’t until the 1930’s that military officials took control of Argentina’s government and things began to change. From this point on, the country of Argentina began to go through major changes and would soon receive the knowledge and leadership style of a man by the name of Juan Peron. Not only would he become the President of Argentina, he would transform Argentina and introduce new documents for the Argentine people; that outlined how to regulate the country and its citizens as well. These documents such as the â€Å"Declaration of Worker’s Rights† would alter the Argentine lifestyle and ultimately change it for the better. When looking back at the beginning, at the time when the economy of Argentina was being transformed; the factor of industrialization had a major impact. Once this took place, there was almost a massive promotion of industries, and within these years the industrial class actually tripled. This was due to the vast majority of European immigrants that Argentina received during this time, a time in which Argentina became known as â€Å"then nation of immigrants†. These immigrants and a couple of Argentine rural families began to relocate themselves within Argentina’s capital city of Buenos Aires. After Argentina began to slowly get back on its feet, the power of Juan Peron was discovered. Peron had probably one of the biggest impacts in Argentina when reviewing documents and history he put into order. Peron was a military colonial in Argentina, until he was named the Minister of Labor within the new government. While he carried this title, Peron did what he could to help improve the labor relations as much as possible. He started off doing this by, elaborating a vision of industrializing through social justice. Once throwing this idea out there, he began to create a close relationship between himself and the workers. Peron put it in his best interest to create laws that would help support these workers. By 1943-1944, Peron was officially passing laws in order to protect workers and also in an effort to create a multi-class alliance. These laws included paying workers more in order to live a standard lifestyle. All-in-all a change like this would allow workers to have enough funds in order to consume more. Therefore, putting money back into Argentina; would overall raise the economy to a higher level. These minor changes were just a start to what Peron would do for Argentina. Since Juan Peron was becoming more and more popular with the Argentine people, the military in control of Argentina began to feel threatened due to his success. In October of 1945, the Argentine military put Peron in jail. Although this did happen, it would not be the end of Juan Peron. A mass amount of workers protested the release of Peron and made his unjust confinement a huge issue. The military then released Peron, and in 1946 he then became the President of Argentina. Once elected President, Peron created the â€Å"Partido Unico de la Revolucion, also known as Peronism. He began to pursue policies aimed at empowering the working class, and expanding the amount of unionized workers. Peron also created a nationalistic view that would go against the Oligards (leading families that rules and controlled the economy of Argentina). This was seen as a good thing, since the Oligards were corrupt and responsible for the weakness of the nation in the past. When gathering information it is quite clear that Juan Peron had a major impact on Argentina. He began to nationalize banks and railroads, and continue to improve the rights of the working class. Although he was seen as a positive and influential figure, Peron did in fact lose the interest in some. After 1955, Peron actually insulted the Catholic Church and made divorce legal. He also took the education system out of their hands and put it within government control. This stunt gave the military a reason to push Peron out of power, and exiled him, stripping the president title. A couple of years later Peron returned and got reelected as President. This was seen as a must since the needs of the Argentine people decreased after his banishment, and Argentina was not that well. This was put in place until his death in 1974. As stated before, Juan Peron had a good run as President, and created many influential documents, such as â€Å"The Declaration of Workers Rights†. This document was proclaimed in public on the 24th of February, 1947. It introduced many rights that can be compared to Canada’s Charter Rights we have in place today. Before Peron, Argentina did not have set rules and laws in order to protect and better the life style of the working man. Peron gave the Argentine people the right to work and have such things as social security. This entailed an individual’s rights to be protected in case of disability. He gave them the ability to work at a rate that would support a lifestyle and the right to be in a better economic situation. This included the right to a fair wage, and the right to well-being. Employers now had the duty to train employees and create working conditions that reciprocated respect in the productive relationship of their workers. The Workers Rights was seen as one of Peron’s strongest platforms, and one that the Argentine people would remember him by in the past and present. When looking at the time period before Juan Peron, there were no such documents to help better the working class of the Argentine people. He created such an improvement within their government and legal system that would be remembered forever. At the turn of the 20th century, Argentina became quite wealthy and well established. The work in the past years in order to get to this rank now, took a lot of change and change in leadership style. Peron is seen as one of the main leader in populism, and his style was a success. All-in-all Juan Peron is seen as an important historical figure within Argentina. There are many factors that have helped Peron achieve his many goals and one important one is his leadership style. When you think of Peron’s style of leadership, you think of â€Å"the people’s party† (populism). Populism is seen as a way in leading with the citizen’s best interests in mind. Populism assumes an emotionally charged relation between the leader and the people who follow him. It can obscure class rule and inequality. When having the best interests of the Argentine people in mind, Juan Peron would automatically win the hearts of these citizens. It is the reason he was seen as such a good leader and a man who changed the ways of Argentina, specifically its working force. He has done a lot such as altering the way in leadership, creating laws and rules that would create an overall happy working class and finally improving Argentina’s economy once and for all. Peron is a legitimate hero for the working class of Argentina and is the man who would create the outline for populist leaders to follow. From all the populist leaders such as Brazil’s Getulio Vargas, and Mexico’s Lazaro Cardenas, I believe Juan Peron had the biggest impact therefore named the official figure or image of populism itself. Through struggles and issues with the military, Juan Peron overcame everything achieved his goals and improved not only the history but the country of Argentina itself.